Economic evaluation of a novel community-based diabetes care model in rural Mexico: a cost and cost-effectiveness study.

OBJECTIVES: Diabetes is the leading cause of disability-adjusted life years in Mexico, and cost-effective care models are needed to address the epidemic. We sought to evaluate the cost and cost-effectiveness of a novel community-based model of diabetes care in rural Mexico, compared with usual care. DESIGN: We performed time-driven activity-based costing to estimate annualised costs associated with typical diabetes care in Chiapas, Mexico, as well as a novel diabetes care model known as Compañeros En Salud Programa de Enfermedades Crónicas (CESPEC). We conducted Markov chain analysis to estimate the cost-effectiveness of CESPEC compared with usual care from a societal perspective. We used patient outcomes from CESPEC in 2016, as well as secondary data from existing literature. SETTING: Rural primary care clinics in Chiapas, Mexico. PARTICIPANTS: Adults with diabetes. INTERVENTIONS: CESPEC is a novel, comprehensive, diabetes care model that integrates community health workers, provider education, supply chain management and active case finding. OUTCOME MEASURE: The primary outcome was the incremental cost-effectiveness of CESPEC compared with care as usual, per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained, expressed in 2016 US dollars. RESULTS: The economic cost of the CESPEC diabetes model was US$144 per patient per year, compared with US$125 for diabetes care as usual. However, CESPEC care was associated with 0.13 additional years of health-adjusted life expectancy compared with usual care and 0.02 additional years in the first 5 years of treatment. This translated to an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of US$2981 per QALY gained over a patient's lifetime and an ICER of US$10 444 over the first 5 years. Findings were robust to multiple sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: CESPEC is a cost-effective, community-based model of diabetes care for patients in rural Mexico. Given the high prevalence and significant morbidity associated with diabetes in Mexico and other countries in Central America, this model should be considered for broader scale up and evaluation.

Observational stepped-wedge analysis of a community health worker-led intervention for diabetes and hypertension in rural Mexico.

OBJECTIVES: There is emerging interest and data supporting the effectiveness of community health workers (CHWs) in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in low/middle-income countries (LMICs). This study aimed to determine whether a CHW-led intervention targeting diabetes and hypertension could improve markers of clinical disease control in rural Mexico. DESIGN AND SETTING: A prospective observational stepped-wedge study was conducted across seven communities in rural Chiapas, Mexico from March 2014 to April 2018. PARTICIPANTS: 149 adults with hypertension and/or diabetes. INTERVENTION: This study was conducted in the context of the programmatic roll-out of an accompaniment-based CHW-led intervention designed to complement comprehensive primary care for adults with diabetes and/or hypertension. Implementation occurred sequentially at 3-month intervals with point-of-care data collected at baseline and every 3 months thereafter for 12 months following roll-out in all communities. OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcomes were glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and systolic blood pressure (SBP), overall and stratified by baseline disease control. We conducted an individual-level analysis using mixed effects regression, adjusting for time, cohort and clustering at the individual and community levels. RESULTS: Among patients with diabetes, the CHW-led intervention was associated with a decrease in HbA1c of 0.35%; however, CIs were wide (95% CI -0.90% to 0.20%). In patients with hypertension, there was a 4.7 mm Hg decrease in SBP (95% CI -8.9 to -0.6). In diabetic patients with HbA1c ≥9%, HbA1c decreased by 0.96% (95% CI -1.69% to -0.23%), and in patients with uncontrolled hypertension, SBP decreased by 10.2 mm Hg (95% CI -17.7 to -2.8). CONCLUSIONS: We found that a CHW-led intervention resulted in clinically meaningful improvement in disease markers for patients with diabetes and hypertension, most apparent among patients with hypertension and patients with uncontrolled disease at baseline. These findings suggest that CHWs can play a valuable role in supporting NCD management in LMICs. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT02549495.

Delivery practices and care experience during implementation of an adapted safe childbirth checklist and respectful care program in Chiapas, Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate changes in quality of care after implementing an adapted safe childbirth checklist (SCC) in Chiapas, Mexico. METHODS: A convergent mixed-methods study was conducted among 447 women in labor who attended a rural community hospital between September 1, 2016, and June 30, 2017. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate adherence to evidence-based practices over time, adjusting for provider. Participants were surveyed about their perceptions of care after hospital discharge. A purposefully sampled subgroup also completed in-depth interviews. Thematic analysis was performed to evaluate perceptions of care. RESULTS: 384 (85.9%) women were attended by staff that used the adapted SCC during delivery. Of these, 221 and 28 completed the hospital discharge survey and in-depth interview, respectively. Adherence with offering a birth companion (odds ratio [OR] 3.06, 95% CI 1.40-6.68), free choice of birth position (2.75, 1.21-6.26), and immediate skin-to-skin contact (4.53, 1.97-10.39) improved 6-8 months after implementation. Participants' perceived quality of care improved over time. Provider communication generated positive perceptions. Reprimanding women for arriving in early labor or complaining of pain generated negative perceptions. CONCLUSION: Use of the adapted SCC improved quality of care through increased adherence with essential and respectful delivery practices.

Implementation and clinical effectiveness of a community-based non-communicable disease treatment programme in rural Mexico: a difference-in-differences analysis.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) account for the five largest contributors to burden of disease in Mexico, with diabetes representing the greatest contributor. However, evidence supporting chronic disease programmes in Mexico is limited, especially in rural communities. Compañeros En Salud (CES) partnered with the Secretariat of Health of Chiapas, Mexico to implement a novel community-based NCD treatment programme. We describe the implementation of this programme and conducted a population-based, retrospective analysis, using a difference-in-differences regression approach to estimate the impact of the programme. Specifically, we examined changes in diabetes and hypertension control rates between 2014 and 2016, comparing CES intervention clinics (n = 9) to care-as-usual at non-CES clinics (n = 806), adjusting for differences in facility-level characteristics. In 2014, the percent of diabetes patients with this condition under control was 36.9% at non-CES facilities, compared with 41.3% at CES facilities (P > 0.05). For hypertension patients, these figures were 45.2% at non-CES facilities compared with 56.2% at CES facilities (P = 0.02). From 2014 to 2016, the percent of patients with diabetes under control declined by 9.2% at non-CES facilities, while improving by 11.3% at non-CES facilities where the Compañeros En Salud Programa de Enfermedades Crónicas intervention was implemented (P < 0.001). Among hypertension patients, those with the condition under control increased by 21.5% at non-CES facilities between 2014 and 2016, compared with 16.2% at CES facilities (P > 0.05). Introduction of the CES model of NCD care was associated with significantly greater improvements in diabetes management between 2014 and 2016, compared with care-as-usual. Hypertension control measures were already greater at CES facilities in 2014, a difference that was maintained through 2016. These findings highlight the successful implementation of a framework for providing NCD care in rural Mexico, where a rapidly increasing NCD disease burden exists.

A Community-Based Approach to Cervical Cancer Prevention: Lessons Learned in Rural Guatemala.

BACKGROUND: One international and three local organizations developed the Santa Ana Women's Health Partnership (SAWHP) to address cervical cancer in Santa Ana Huista, Huehuetenango, Guatemala. This paper describes the structure, outcomes, and lessons learned from our community partnership and program. METHODS: The community partnership developed a singlevisit approach (SVA) program that guided medically underserved women through screening and treatment of cervical cancer. LESSONS LEARNED: The program promoted acceptability of SVA among rural women by engaging local female leaders and improving access to screening services. The program's approach focused on maximizing access and generated interest beyond the coverage area. Distrust among the community partners and weak financial management contributed to the program's cessation after 4 years. CONCLUSIONS: The SAWHP design may guide future implementation of cervical cancer screening programs to reach medically underserved women. Open, ongoing dialogue among leaders in each partner institution is paramount to success.

Community health workers improve disease control and medication adherence among patients with diabetes and/or hypertension in Chiapas, Mexico: an observational stepped-wedge study.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) contribute greatly to morbidity and mortality in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). Community health workers (CHWs) may improve disease control and medication adherence among patients with NCDs in LMICs, but data are lacking. We assessed the impact of a CHW-led intervention on disease control and adherence among patients with diabetes and/or hypertension in Chiapas, Mexico. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study among adult patients with diabetes and/or hypertension, in the context of a stepped-wedge roll-out of a CHW-led intervention. We measured self-reported adherence to medications, blood pressure and haemoglobin A1c at baseline and every 3 months, timed just prior to expansion of the intervention to a new community. We conducted individual-level mixed effects analyses of study data, adjusting for time and clustering by patient and community. FINDINGS: We analysed 108 patients. The CHW-led intervention was associated with a twofold increase in the odds of disease control (OR 2.04, 95% CI 1.15 to 3.62). It was also associated with optimal adherence assessed by 30-day recall (OR 1.86; 95% CI 1.15 to 3.02) and a positive self-assessment of adherence behaviour (OR 2.29; 95% CI 1.26 to 4.15), but not by 5-day recall. INTERPRETATION: A CHW-led adherence intervention was associated with disease control and adherence among adults with diabetes and/or hypertension. This study supports a role of CHWs in supplementing comprehensive primary care for patients with NCDs in LMICs. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT02549495.

Service, training, mentorship: first report of an innovative education-support program to revitalize primary care social service in Chiapas, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The Mexican mandatory year of social service following medical school, or pasantía, is designed to provide a safety net for the underserved. However, social service physicians (pasantes) are typically unpracticed, unsupervised, and unsupported. Significant demotivation, absenteeism, and underperformance typically plague the social service year. OBJECTIVE: Compañeros en Salud (CES) aimed to create an education-support package to turn the pasantía into a transformative learning experience. DESIGN: CES recruited pasantes to complete their pasantía in CES-supported Ministry of Health clinics in rural Chiapas. The program aims to: 1) train pasantes to more effectively deliver primary care, 2) expose pasantes to central concepts of global health and social medicine, and 3) foster career development of pasantes. Program components include supportive supervision, on-site mentorship, clinical information resources, monthly interactive seminars, and improved clinic function. We report quantitative and qualitative pasante survey data collected from February 2012 to August 2013 to discuss strengths and weaknesses of this program and its implications for the pasante workforce in Mexico. RESULTS: Pasantes reported that their medical knowledge, and clinical and leadership skills all improved during the CES education-support program. Most pasantes felt the program had an overall positive effect on their career goals and plans, although their self-report of preparedness for the Mexican residency entrance exam (ENARM) decreased during the social service year. One hundred percent reported they were satisfied with the CES-supported pasantía experience and wished to help the poor and underserved in their careers. CONCLUSIONS: Education-support programs similar to the CES program may encourage graduating medical students to complete their social service in underserved areas, improve the quality of care provided by pasantes, and address many of the known shortcomings of the pasantía. Additional efforts should focus on developing a strategy to expand this education-support model so that more pasantes throughout Mexico can experience a transformative, career-building, social service year.

User Perceptions of an mHealth Medicine Dosing Tool for Community Health Workers.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) technologies provide many potential benefits to the delivery of health care. Medical decision support tools have shown particular promise in improving quality of care and provider workflow. Frontline health workers such as Community Health Workers (CHWs) have been shown to be effective in extending the reach of care, yet only a few medicine dosing tools are available to them. OBJECTIVE: We developed an mHealth medicine dosing tool tailored to the skill level of CHWs to assist in the delivery of care. The mHealth tool was created for CHWs with primary school education working in rural Mexico and Guatemala. Perceptions and impressions of this tool were collected and compared to an existing paper-based medicine dosing tool. METHODS: Seventeen Partners In Health CHWs in rural Mexico and Guatemala completed a one-day training in the mHealth medicine dosing tool. Following the training, a prescription dosing test was administered, and CHWs were given the choice to use the mHealth or paper-based tool to answer 7 questions. Subsequently, demographic and qualitative data was collected using a questionnaire and an in-person interview conducted in Spanish, then translated into English. The qualitative questions captured data on 4 categories: comfort, acceptability, preference, and accuracy. Qualitative responses were analyzed for major themes and quantitative variables were analyzed using SAS. RESULTS: 82% of the 17 CHWs chose the mHealth tool for at least 1 of 7 questions compared to 53% (9/17) who chose to use the paper-based tool. 93% (13/14) rated the phone as being easy or very easy to use, and 56% (5/9) who used the paper-based tool rated it as easy or very easy. Dosing accuracy was generally higher among questions answered using the mHealth tool relative to questions answered using the paper-based tool. Analysis of major qualitative themes indicated that the mHealth tool was perceived as being quick, easy to use, and as having complete information. The mHealth tool was seen as an acceptable dosing tool to use and as a way for CHWs to gain credibility within the community. CONCLUSIONS: A tailored cell phone-based mHealth medicine dosing tool was found to be useful and acceptable by CHWs in rural Mexico and Guatemala. The streamlined workflow of the mHealth tool and benefits such as the speed and self-lighting were found to be particularly useful features. Well designed and positioned tools such as this may improve effective task shifting by reinforcing the tasks that different cadres of workers are asked to perform. Further studies can explore how to best implement this mHealth tool in real-world settings, including how to incorporate the best elements of the paper-based tool that were also found to be helpful.